Winter Clothing in the Early Modern Period 1.

How did people protect themselves from the cold?

Once again, we find ourselves at the end of December, even if this year the cold seems to have arrived a little late. Still, hats, scarves, and gloves are prepared in anticipation of that morning when winter finally makes itself felt. But what did people wear against the cold in the Early Modern period?

The climate of the 16th–17th centuries is often described using the term Little Ice Age, referring to a wetter and cooler period compared to the High Middle Ages (12th–13th centuries). This does not imply dramatic drops in temperature—rather, a difference of just a few degrees Celsius in average temperature. Yet even this modest change was enough to shape everyday life and to inspire the beautiful winter landscapes so characteristic of the Early Modern Low Countries.

As more and more events require historical reenactors or experimental archaeologists to appear outdoors even in winter, or simply because historical reconstruction has reached a level where winter clothing must also be considered, I decided to explore this topic in more detail. What was appropriate, possible, and necessary to wear in winter? And more generally: what did people actually do during the winter months in this period?

Jan van Goyen: Winter (1625)

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Goyen_1625_winter.jpg

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It was clear from the outset that I was not interested in the stereotypical idea that everyone stayed indoors, doing nothing, because “medieval people never did anything but work.” Based on a principle I have often found to be true—some things never change—people clearly enjoyed leisure and entertainment, especially when there was less work to be done in the fields, orchards, or wine cellars.

With this in mind, I deliberately searched for images depicting winter activities and entertainment. Unsurprisingly, Early Modern paintings and prints are full of ice skaters, sledgers, people riding ice sleds, and crowds cautiously (or not so cautiously) navigating frozen surfaces. Some figures appear highly skilled, gliding almost professionally across the ice, while others stumble, fall, or even break through thinner ice layers and end up taking an unexpected dip.

Of course, daily business still had to be taken care of, which leads us to an obvious conclusion: people did go outdoors in winter. And if one spends longer periods outside—whether working or enjoying leisure activities—in snow and frost, additional clothing becomes essential.

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Embroidered gloves from the 17th century

https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/81540

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Following my usual approach, I examined both written and visual sources from the period. As mentioned above, the region of today’s Netherlands and Belgium produced an abundance of winter landscapes, which provided a particularly rich starting point. Costume albums are also extremely useful, as Early Modern people enjoyed presenting seasonal clothing, allowing us to glimpse entire winter wardrobes—if we know where to look.

Let us therefore focus on the parts of the body most in need of protection. I have written elsewhere about various types of outer garments and cloaks, which were padded with textiles or fur depending on wealth and temperature, so I will not repeat that here. Instead, let us consider the most vulnerable areas: ears, hands, and face.

Gloves were known both before and during the Early Modern period. Some were beautifully embroidered, designed primarily for representation rather than severe cold, and were more suitable for the ballroom season than for freezing outdoor conditions.

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Pieter van der Heyden: Winter (detail)

Rijksmuseum

https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/nl/collectie/object/RP-P-1891-A-16535--7aec71c8c5ad852c831516b3bd49a5f5

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We also encounter two- and three-fingered gloves, most likely made of leather and lined for warmth, suitable for winter use by both men and women.

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Wenceslaus Hollar: English lady in winter dress

https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/356521

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But what else could be used to keep hands warm if gloves were not the preferred option? Most readers will already be familiar with the answer, even if today we rarely reach for this accessory—except perhaps for an evening at the theatre or a particularly elegant winter event. Here, of course, the muff (handwarmer) comes into focus.

The term may have Latin roots: muffulae referred to a type of winter hand-warmer. From the French moufle came the Dutch mof, the Walloon mouffe, and eventually the English muff, which also entered Hungarian usage as a loanword. Today, the word often carries pejorative connotations (especially among men), but we shall leave such associations for mulled-wine evenings.

What matters here is that the muff became widespread in the 16th century as a decorative hand-warming accessory. Across Europe, muffs were produced with fur linings and outer surfaces made of fur or luxurious textiles, often decorated with pearls and metal ornaments. In Hungarian territories, several terms were used, including karmantyú, karzsák, and stuczli.

Sources mention velvet examples lined with looped velvet, but more often with valuable furs such as marten, sable, or polecat. Interestingly, inventories also record summer versions—for example, in the 1656 inventory of Mária Viczay—although it is hard to imagine many practical uses for a muff on a warm summer evening beyond displaying the richness of one’s wardrobe. Let us therefore return to winter.

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Daniël van den Bremden; Adriaen Pietersz van de Venne: Winter (1625–1630)

https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/collection/object/Winter--64e9ad9270e172b00565640f1aea11d4

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In terms of shape, the muff is generally cylindrical, allowing hands to be inserted from both sides. Its construction required both interlining and lining. Unfortunately, no Early Modern Hungarian examples are known, but Western European collections preserve numerous pieces. Moreover, careful observation of contemporary images reveals many variations.

Fully fur-covered muffs are common, but inventories and artworks also show textile-covered versions combined with fur. I personally found this latter type more appealing, which inspired me to make two reconstructions. In both cases, I planned fur linings, while allowing the fur to remain visible only at the edges, covering the outer cylinder with more expensive textiles.

One piece was made from multiple small sections of kid fur assembled into panels and covered with blue patterned silk brocade. The other used dark rabbit fur panels combined with embroidered silk fabric. These panels were mounted onto green wool (the colour is irrelevant, as it does not remain visible), as the skins themselves were very fine and thin.

Working fur onto a textile base is important not only for heat retention, but also for durability. The skins are thin and tear easily, so investing extra time in hand sewing and layering results in a more robust object. A professional furrier also emphasised this to me when I acquired the materials—though I had already learned something about the properties of musky fur from earlier projects.

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I can wholeheartedly recommend these items for the depths of winter. Both winter gloves and muffs are relatively quick to make and also work wonderfully as Christmas gifts. I completed my own pieces within half a day, so I wish everyone productive work and warm hands!

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Recommended reading

• Radvánszky, Béla: Magyar családélet és háztartás a XVI. és XVII. században. Budapest, 1986.
  (Karzsákok: http://digitalia.tudaskozpont-pecs.hu/…)

• Rijksmuseum website: https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/…

• Tiramani, Jenny – North, Susan (eds.): Seventeenth-Century Women’s Dress Patterns. London, 2013.

The History of the Pocket – or Why Historical Reenactors Crave Them

 Although many people don’t realize it, pockets first appeared in early modern clothing, and they might seem like a small detail—until suddenly you have nowhere to put your things. That’s when you truly appreciate what an invention it is! People always carried their most essential items with them, only what counted as essential changed depending on the era. You certainly couldn’t fit the contents of a woman’s reticule into a 17th-century pocket (let’s be honest, women’s reticules have always contained a half brick “just in case”), but a larger pocket could really be life-saving. I’ve experienced this at almost every historical festival or living history event over the past few years. Even with my trusty old leather belt, where I could hang things in the manner of an ancient or medieval person, it’s still nice to have a proper, comfortable pocket! The problem is, it only occurs to you when there’s no solution… precisely when you need it most. So this year, I’m finally thinking ahead: the Great Pocket-Making Project begins!

Hungarian nobleman

In: Cesare Vecellio: De gli habiti antichi et moderni di diverse parti del mondo. 1598.

Were There Pockets in the 16th–17th Centuries? – Following the Sources 

Fortunately, we have plenty of clues: written records, visual representations, archaeological finds, and museum pieces. For a textile history topic, that’s almost a luxury—but if you dive in, it quickly becomes clear that the pocket story is not as simple as it might first seem. 

It’s not enough to say, “Of course they existed!” — the real question is what form they took. 

The Power of Written Sources – or What Bethlen Gábor’s Keys Tell Us 

János Kemény (a Prince of Transylvania, who was a herold of the former Price when he was a youngster), writes in his diary, that Gábor Bethlen had a “foszlány” (or “fosztán” aka fustian) dolman, from whose pocket a person under his patronage took the keys to the “golden chest.” The dramatic part of the story is beside the point here—what matters for us is that the prince kept his keys in a pocket. In other words: the doublet had a pocket, and it was functional. 

Archaeological and Museum Pieces – Dolmans, Mentes, and a Pair of Trousers 

Among the finds in Sárospatak, there are two dolmans and a mente, all featuring side slits, and the fragments indicate that they originally contained silk lining. Even the only known 16th-century trouser find from the area shows a pocket opening. So these are clearly the predecessors of the “modern” pocket. 

Women’s Clothing – Hidden Slits 

The situation is more complicated for women’s clothing. For example, on a skirt preserved at the Museum of Applied Arts, probably belonging to Erzsébet Thurzó, there is a slit—which very likely belonged to a pocket. However, while we can imagine sewn-in pockets on dolmans similar to modern ones, that’s not necessarily how it worked for women’s garments. 

Thurzó Erzsébet szoknyája ,1640 körül Forrás: http://gyujtemeny.imm.hu/gyujtemeny/szoknya-feltehetoen-thurzo-erzsebet-ruhatarabol/2862?ds=eyJxIjoic3pva255YSJ9&i=38

The Hidden, Tie-On Pocket – A Transitional Garment Type 

From the 17th century onward, we know of a special type: the tie-on, separate pocket worn at the waist—not over the outer skirt, but beneath one or more layers of skirts. This is basically a larger pouch in which a woman could carry everything she would keep in a modern pocket—or even more. Many examples have survived from the 18th–19th centuries, but we already know them from the 17th century.

Embroidered pocket from the Metropolitan Museum (18th century)

Source:  https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/156892?rpp=20&pg=1&rndkey=20120216&ft=*&when=A.D.+1600-1800&where=United+States&what=Costume&pos=5

And then came the realization: I had seen one of these before! My dear elderly friends from Kalotaszeg (nowaadays in Romania), aunt Katalin and Erzsébet—who for decades came to the Dobó István Castle Museum to sell folk costumes and beadwork—carried their money in precisely this way: in a small hidden pocket under the apron and upper skirt. 

In other words, this solution survived into the 21st century, at least in certain regions. Looking at it this way, it’s completely logical: this type of pocket is a transitional form between the old “pouch tied to the belt” and the modern “sewn-in pocket.” 

And practical too: 

• larger than any modern pocket, 

• doesn’t pull on the skirt, 

• doesn’t bang against the leg while walking,

• and can hide heavier items. 

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European Examples – Embroidery, Patterns, Use 

Unfortunately, I don’t know of any surviving examples in Hungary (though hope remains), but abroad there are plenty. For instance, the Metropolitan Museum holds several 17th–18th-century examples embroidered on white linen. They were decorated with dense floral patterns—carnations, tulips, tiny flowers. At the time, the Western world fell in love with these floral motifs just as we did, so it’s not only a matter of Ottoman influence. Even though the pockets were hidden from view, they were highly decorated—indicating that they contained personal, important items. 

The Big Surprise: Knitted Pockets

 Then came the next shock—I found knitted pockets too! Several of the earliest examples are knitted. After my stocking project, this was especially exciting: another area where early knitting techniques appear.

Kötött zsebtáska Cooper Hewitt gyűjteményből
Forrás: https://collection.cooperhewitt.org/objects/18571791/

1. The Sewn Pocket – A Pair, Based on 17th–18th Century Examples 

Many years ago, my mother gave me a piece of embroidered satin with the note, “Use it for something beautiful, because it’s too small.” Indeed, not much could be done with the half-meter of fabric. But when I designed the pockets, the memory suddenly surfaced, and this fabric became the basis for the first prototype. Later, several more pockets were made, including one for a museum commission in Egervár, scheduled for spring 2025. The process isn’t complicated at all: draw the pattern, cut two front and two back pieces. The opening is in the upper third of the front piece, centered, and I finished it with satin bias tape—which you can buy ready-made or cut from your own fabric. The edges of the pocket were finished in the same way. I sewed a strap at the top of each pocket and threaded a flat ribbon through them so it could be tied around the waist. It’s not a long project: even hand-sewn, it can be done in a single day. 

Blue velvet pocket for a museum project (author's own photo)

Embroidered satin pair of pockets (rigth side-reverse side) - author's own photo

The Pocket Project Today 

With this sewn pair, the Pocket Project officially began, and I can already see how many small questions, solutions, and experiments can fit behind a seemingly insignificant garment. The history of the pocket is not just an interesting costume detail; it’s a very practical matter: it solved the same problem 400 years ago as it would for any reenactor today—where to put your things? In the next part, I’ll introduce another type: the knitted pocket, which holds even more exciting surprises.

A type of handkerchief from the 17th century Hungary

 Illésházy  Gáspárné 1648

From the 16-17th century we know many archieves about keszkenő, or the handkerchief which  mainly held in the hand. Probably 14th century, has already appeared in Hungary, where the  in royal wardrobe can be found. A scarf or handkerchief covering the hands. The standard measures were usually between 20 and 40 cm, sided trimmed textilepieces which were decorated with a variety of embroidery and laces on the trim. Like the rest of the aristocratic attire there is more data about the upper classes, as well as paintings made of them. A girl usually had 10-20 pieces of handkerchief, but that number could reach up to 100 pieces. A wide variety of materials and decorated items can be found in the inventories. In the 16th century appears in costume-paintings, where women are held in their hands. This was lived in ethnographic era still 19-20th century, usually at festive occasions. So far, in excavation no one still remains or just fragments of whole cloth, but it probably can be  the surviving habit of the early modern tradition. In addition, placed it to the dead man's funeral in the 16th century, because it is visible in a spacial type of paintings. These were made after the death from the corps and placed it to the funeralstage during the mass. It also seems that the society had a meaning for it, as a personal memory of the dead who buried with it. But if the bride was unfaithful, the groom tore the received dowry.

             In the ethnographic tradition, often used during the dance, woman dried the swelter of the man. Often a  lover or a young husband received kerchief, which was worn in a pocket or pinned to the waist. In the 16th century we find it in men's and women's inventories as well, so the habit  of give a shawl as a dowry can back up to the appearance of it. The used materials were very variables  like fine linen, thin and thick linen, Hungarian canvas (gyolcs), Polish and Moravian cambric (patyolat) in the inventories. Ethnographic pieces are also made from fine, lightweight materials,  as said above the linen or canvas.

The techniques of embroidery were very diverse, despite the fact that we know just a few items, and they are survived the decades in collections, just because of the fine material, which can be easily destroyed, dissipated. The inventories can be found silk thread embroidery with skófium (auri filum, a silk string with gold), and Hungarian gold. The colors were generally quite variable, all-white to colorful can be found. Red and green  were regarded to fashionable colors. This is understandable when you consider that the majority of plants used for ornamentation. The techniques of embroidery next to the Hungarian we can find Spanish and Italian style in the sources. The clean white embroidery remained until the 20th century, because it was very popular. On the edge of the handkerchief can be also found many kinds of laces from the Turkish fringed type to the bone-lace from the 15th century

Currently, a finely woven fabric material is selected to prepare a handkerchief. This is 20x 20 cm in size and the embroidery pattern is Ottoman, four-flower style. Worked off the edges with silk thread and used the same silk to made a lace with loops. The lace could be prepared quickly and easily. I make a double loop about a 1 cm long trim-part. I continue this knotting method on the loops. In the meantime, it is worth paying attention to keep knots tightly because they easily turn away. The Turkish sample fills with different type of embroirey tecniques .But let this be a separate record because of the difficulty ...

Bibliography

http://mek.niif.hu/02100/02115/html/3-431.html 2011.03.17. 22:14

Radvánszky Béla: Magyar családélet és háztartás a XVI-XVII. században I. 1989. 109.

http://vmek.oszk.hu/02100/02152/html/04/387.html 2010.03.17. 22:52

Upper clothes in the Early New Ages in Hungary

The early modern Hungarian Kingdom women's upper garment can distinguish between two types: the Spanish and Hungarian-type costumes. The sources said a variety of garments were worn the colder days. The present data show that no matter which type of outer clothing  was worn to the garments. At least not the Hungarian or western type defined it, but which was considered to appropriate for the decorated outfit. As we shall see below, add some problems to the complexity of the situation  that a lot of different names can be found in the sources, which patterns should be defined from the images and artifacts .

Bela Radvánszky collected them the followings in inventories and letters:

Hacuka

 The German word Huseck effected this expression. Historically we can find the names hacuka, hacoka which was a light overcoat or mantle of the aristocracy. It remained in several dialects in different meanings . That was the name of the old style long German men coat in the Csallokoz, but it is often identified as a lightweight jacket for women  (eg. in Kemenesalja, Kiskunfélegyháza, Tokaj etc), which was also used in the early modern period.  In Debrecen and Sopron outmoded clothing was the hacuka, such as it is now well-known nowadays, and in the town from county Torontál, Tiszahegyes the meaning was 'clobber' . Baranya differs from the former interpretation, the white female stockings was understood as hacuka. I have not found data for the exact form, only the material and decoration can gain from descriptions and the images .

View of Cluj-Napoca 1614, Extract

Lady Eva Csaky wife of István Forgách

Spanish gown: 

We find it in the contemporary sources as janker. Probably a long robe, which was popular in the Western fashion among women. Made them short (kurta) and long sleeved variations. Separate sleeves often linked to the gowns. Janet Arnold collected some in Patterns of Fashion, Volume 2 and it is visibleon the engraving in the Cluj from 1614. In the foreground  there are three female characters wearing spanish gowns.

Bomez 

Doublet from Janet Arnold Patterns of Fashion Vol.2

The contemporaneous written material to find bomez, wambesz, vambesz as well, but Lilla Tompos identifies it with the so-called korcovány. In the pattern books there are accurate picture of them, for example among the samples in Kosice. According to this the korcovány is a waist-high, tight, sleeveless upper garment, which includes pieces on the waist, and on the shoulders decorated with epolett. This occurs in both male and female wardrobe can find it, and like other similar upper garment it was produced by a very wide range of materials. The korcovány closed with buttons on the front. Although Hungarian research isn't mentioned it, but compared with the well-known pieces from Western Europe the doublet is the closest to  our korcoványunk, which we can find in the works of Janet Arnold. Accordingly, it is possible that is attached separate sleeves to korcoványok even from other material  than the korcovány as well.

Kis köntös (Little robe)

 Short-sleeved upper garment. A wide, but may be a short kind of coat. Awareness of tailor's pattern is not yet identified. 

Gelezna

 A typical overcoat made from fur , which is usually long. A variety of fur was used as the fox, marten.

Women's winter clothing from 1703

Mente

The pattern was like the men's. Radvánszky collected several types. Thus, it was known long and thigh mente, and the short version was the mentécske (little mente) in the resource. The third type of clamping mente, which was a kind of close-fitting garment. The latter can only assume, since this piece is not currently known, the name clamping and the stiffened clothing habits of the period considered the possibility that this may have been fastened with whalebone or some other natural material.

Suba

 One of the most frequently mentioned type of upper garment. Usually it covered with a very wide range of fabrics and fur was outside. There have been cases that the fur was wore outside, and inside was lined with a different textile. We can find many different types in the inventories, such as  medium-sized suba for women. It streched under the waist, but it was not long. Radvánszky said the girls had different pattern than the women. From both type made winter and summer versions, where the difference is only in the amount of furs. Another kind is large or old Suba, which was long. Outside there was green taffeta or kamuka (type of textile) was used,  and decorated with furs, silk and gold and silver laces. Little suba was a short which reached only to the waist, but it was very richly decorated. Peter Apor wrote in the Metamorphosis Transylvaniae that only girls wore it in his time and decorated such richly that anyone heavily see the original textile. Radványszky contradict this, because women also have little subas. But it can be that there were precious garment, of course, will not throw out the owner. So it is understandable why the women were often herited them to the relative young girls. Finally, long-suba also mentioned  which streched below knee and only made for winter. All of the suba's pattern were wide.

Ursula Kanizsai

Kozsók, kosucska This is a kind if suba rather furry, the name is mostly appeared in the countryside..

Finally, there are also data palást (mantle) and köpönyeg (cloak). Between the two type can not really find a significant difference, of course, assuming the special mention of the two type some difference. With the parallels, I concluded that cut and the size can be the solution. As circle and the oval shape appear both of them, but the robe (or mantle) occurs more than the cloak. We know from the period not only long but also to the waist, elbow length cloaks. They called  tippet. There are archaeological artifacts as well in Hungary. Two sites were found tippets: in Miskolc-Avas the parish church in 1941 and 2010, the Franciscan Church in Sopron (known as the "Goat Temple"). The latter has not yet appeared in books, only a brief account of the end of 2010, in the National Restoration Conference held in the Hungarian National Museum. This is a  Spanish garb,a full woman's dress, on which spreaded the embroidered lace tippet. The other tippet from Miskolc made from velvet and was restored by Mrs Adam Bako in 1982-83. In addition, she told that  among the findings of Sarospatak there were some  textile piece  presuming as a tippet, but it was not be able to  be restored.  An other restorer Katalin E. Nagy, keep this type the small suba. Since there is no mention for sleeves of the little subas, so it is a conceivable option, but the formal terms are more easily searchable, so I classified this tippet, which in Western Europe was also a very fashionable outer clothing, in the type of cloaks.

The tippet from Miskolc, parish church

The tippet from Sopron, Franciscan church

Bibliography

Bakó Ádámné: Egy XVI. századi körgallér restaurálása. HOMÉ 1986.

Domokos Ottó: A magyarországi céhes szabók mintakönyvei 1630-1838. MNM, Budapest 1997.

Radvánszky Béla: Magyar családélet és háztartás a XVI-XVII. században. 1989. 94-102.

Tompos Lilla: Magyar és spanyol női viselet Magyarországon a 16. században. Korunk 2008 július http://www.korunk.org/?q=node/8&ev=2008&honap=7&cikk=8950 2009. 09.21. 17:32
Tompos Lilla: A korcovány az invetnáriumok tükrében. Ars Decorativa

Hacoka: http://archiv.magyarszo.com/arhiva/2007/06/30/main.php?l=j2.htm 2011.03.18.6:26

Magyar Néprajz IV. Anyagi Kultúra3. Életmód/ , Vékonyposztó, „Finommatéria” Felsőruhákhttp://vmek.oszk.hu/02100/02152/html/04/347.html2011.03.18. 7:03

Pallas nagylexikon: hacuka címszóhttp://vmek.oszk.hu/02100/02152/html/04/347.html2011.03.18. 7:04
Sopron Kecske templom: http://nol.hu/archivum/20101129-magyar_vall_a_sir_melyerol

Zoltai Lajos: Debreceni viselet  a XVI- XVII. században II. Női viselet. Ethnographia XLIX. (1938) 287-315.

http://mek.oszk.hu/09100/09175/html/66.html

Medieval leather shoes in the Hungarian Kingdom

Leather items has been used since prehistoric times. The Middle Ages have high level prosessing of leather and specialized preparation methods have been introduced. Guilds created various branches but we can't find leather maker guild in the sources, but tanners, shoemakers and their peers should be sought. However, before turning to the theme of the thesis, take a brief look to the medieval shoemaking, what kind of leather crafts  were exactly founded in medieval Hungary. 

The tanner, and then later called tobakos-tanner crafts founded thier guild in 14th century. During the 16th century, it became the kordovánkészítő, and in the 17th century, they formed a separate guild. The furriers and the pelt-makers were created in 14th century. Saddle makers were worked with leather, who appeared in the same century officially. In 15th century saddlers made their own guild, but the belt makers became independent only in modern times, in the 18th century. Leahter workers assisted to the processing of literacy because the vellum-makers  formed their own community in the 15th century. There are still leather dyers and case-makers in  the sources, but the latter three crafts were forgotten in the following centuries, and only during the 18-19th century were recuscticated. 

From the sources we can recontstruct the phases of shoemaking  in the Middle Ages were followings: selection of the suitable leather, cutting, then soaking the pieces in water, drying and then stretching. After they imposed the pieces more precise and sewn together. The fine pieces  were sewn together then with the lining . The pieces were turned out to their color side, and then gained the final size on the shoehorn. Of course, before the 14th century the shoemaker-cobbler's job was existed, but only this century professionalized and had a separate guild. Posteriorly they were called sandal-, clam- and shoemaker. Separated from them the boot-maker in 16th century as well. The Hungarian leather making was proved to be so successful in the 14th century sources in western Europe, and appeared an expression: "Hungarian-leather". It should be noted that in ethnographic researches Alice Gáborján  collected the exact progression of the prosessing of leather in a "Hungarian way". Although the first mention came from French sources in 18th century , we know, the procedure is likely to be earlier. They depilated insted of fermentation of the fresh, raw leather, then soaked it in a alum-salt solution , trampled it, and then dried. After drying kept the leather over ember, and the opened pores of the skin were involved with hot fat. However, we do not know exactly what kind of branches of leather-proccesing craft used this mode. Next to that it is not entirely certain that the shoes produced with this process.

We mainly have illustrations about the processing of shoemaking  and we can gain informations from the tools of ethnographic data and the still existing old shoemaking shop. The first depiction of making boots came from the turn of 12-13th century from the Patternbook of Rein. You can see in details the tools and the master himself sitting in the shop at the table in the page of Mendelschen Stiftung from 1388. From 15th century is one of the most important source about shoeshop is an unknown Spanish painter's image . You can find heelless, side- laced shoes on the table and the finished products, which were found in Buda castle.

In the castle medieval houses were explored and buried wells have been found, such as Dísz Square 8 and 10, Uri street 40, Ostrom street 13 and St. George's Square. In these wells are often remained  organic findings next to the pottery , so a significant amount of leather also have been found mixed with fragments and whole shoes. Archaeologists (Katalin Írásné Melis, Dorottya Nyékhelyi) mainly searched archaeological parallels - although we must not forget that there are not too much detailed data with regard to footwear. Main parallels came from North- Europe, for example Poland (due to climatic conditions in several of these findings have been found there), and formal versions from the old Soviet Union and Western Europe. On this basis, we can say that during the 13-14th century there were three determining European shoe-fashion  These were consisted of sandal, ankle-shoe and the ankle-boot. The sandal could have been strengthened to the legs in several ways. This type are still remained till nowadays. The ankle-shoes appeared about 9th century, at least in that form founded in Buda Castle. In Hungary, such as Poland (Wolin, Gdansk) appeared at the great achievements of the side-lace. The upper piece of the shoe cut from one leather piece and sewn at one line perpendicular or slightly oblique to the base. This uppers sewn to the sole and with this new method created shoes for the left and the right legs. In 11-12. century, the shanked shoes are still widespread, it has expanded the number of styles. Archaeological finds and in images the same type can be found, so there is a clear identification, it is known in the so-called. ankle-boot. Two types are known from this period: low stalk encompasses the ankle, or the shaft is rigid and the sides do not reach each other or turns out like a collar (such piece was found in excavations in Novgorod). During 12th century the types has slowly transformed, became slimmer as well as used various upper deposits. In Opole and Gdansk in Poland have been found the earliest mentioned footwear. The long nose and fashion became a general feature of the ankle-boots in the 13th century. In addition, the coarser shoe-types were survived, but the long, slender species were fashionable. The earliest shoe- "parallels"  in Buda were come up to light from  the excavations of Gdansk and Wolin in the 12th century archeological layers, and the later parallels from the 15th century were found in Warsaw Old Town.

Next to Western fashion trends, it's worth reviewing the shoes for the Hungarians , as far as resources allow it, because this could have affected to the Hungarian citizen's wear. We know that the Hungarian conquerer's  also known boots, shoes and ankle-shoes from archaeological traces. The conquerers had side-laced boots, made from leather or felt with whip up-nose. Of course, the social rank was symbolized by the quality of the material of the shoe, so the richer made shoes for example, from Bulgarian leather (Bagaria) but the lower social layers prepared it from simpler leather or felt. From the ages of Árpád-housewe have limited data about shoes. From the sources and pictorial archives we can see that they wore a kind of tunic with separate stems of pants and shoes. This was pushed out from the fashion in the 12th century by the Byzantine fashion. This is a clam decorated with purple lane and gold and  we can find good example  in the crypt of the cathedral of Pécs, and this may be the fashion, which was prohibited by King Kálmán I to clergymen. The researchers believe that these types (Conquest, Árpád and the Byzantine era) were present together, so in the Middle Ages there was a very variable shoe wearing habit.  During the era of Anjou kings the shoe-types hadn't become uniform and from the Képes Krónika (Illumintaed Chronicle if we translate it) we can prove it. The Chronicle - if it applied properly to the situation - depicted the figures in eastern and western (Italian) costumes. There are three kinds of  footwear in the Italian outfit. The most common - even in Europe -  the two stem-stockings, with leather sole, on which were drew calms. King Géza and King Solomon wore them in the Chronica. In addition to these, two types of shoes were worn in the pictures: a closed, plain or embroidered, ankle-shoes and in the wearing of the Knights appears red and white cross-banded shoes wore with yellow stockings.  The outfit of kings contrusted, for example King Ladislas at the coronation ceremony wore  blue stockings, closed peaked red ankle-shoes, while the upper classes wore colorful stockings without sandals. For the oriental dresses worn yet unspecified form, but also pointed-toed shoes, but  it cannot visible because of length of clothes. Based on the Illuminated Chronicle and wallpaintings from churches  the most common form of 13-14.th century was the clam (at least in military dress were often presented, which can be seen in the depictions of St. Ladislas).

Although the Illuminated Chronicle often schematizes, the excavations of Buda confirmed the authenticity of the images depicted about footwear. The findings were preserved, restored, and because many pieces were found, researchers had to pair the pieces, also had to look for pieces, but also managed to reconstruct four ankle-shoes. All were side-laced, closed upper-piece shoes, sometimes lining pieces are also paired through the seems. We can tell about the shoes from the wells of Buda that they followed the European fashion, so the side-laced shoes made up the vast majority of the artifacts. On the shoes lace holes still visible, so the were laces too in the well, but no traces were found. The excavations of the medieval Buda told us that ankle-shoes were worn as popularly as ankle-boots. Although in the Buda have not found an example yet, but here it is worth mentioning the so-called pattens and wooden slippers   which were pulled to the soft shoes to protect them On the ankle-boots there were button holes. The buttons usually made from leather strings, but there are examples of metal buckles, or leather banded solutions as well. At the end, we can conclude that in the Middle Ages there were commonly used forms.The comfortable shoes  appeared early in the middle of 12th  century when they began to use the more tailored pieces, which are also used in the Kingdom of Hungary.

Bibliography

Bogdán István: Kézművesek mestersége. Budapest, 1989.

Gáborján Alice: A magyar módra való bőrkészítés problematikája. In: Néprajzi Értesítő XLIV (1962), Budapest, 97-140.

Írásné Melis Katalin: A budai középkori lábbeliviselet. In: Archaeológiai Értesítő 100 (1973),     Budapest, 88-101.

Mocskonyi Melinda: XIV. századi bőrcipők az ostrom utcából. Budapest Régiségei 33 (1999),  Budapest, 347-350.

Nyékhelyi Dorottya: Középkori kútlelet a budavári Szent György térről. Monumenta Historica  Budapestinensia XII. (2003) Budapest Francis Grew-Margareth de Neergaard: Shoes and pattens. Medieval finds from excavations in   ondon 2. London, 1988.